Barnett, K. M.; McMahon, T. A.; Shepack, A. D.; Buelow, H. N.; Barkley, Z.; Belsare, A. V.; Risin, M.; Milloway, O.; Carozza, J.; Beasley, J.; Hobart, B.; Moss, W. E.; McDevitt-Galles, T.; Detmering, S.; Hilgendorff, B. A.; Nordheim, C. L.; Calhoun, D. M.; Rohr, J. R.; Johnson, P. T. J.; Civitello, D. J.

Wildlife vaccination could become a powerful strategy to mitigate disease-induced biodiversity losses, yet many vaccines for wildlife diseases provide only limited protection. Notably, tools to control the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) are urgently needed for amphibian conservation. Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that prophylactic exposure to Bd metabolites increases host resistance, significantly reducing infection intensity in amphibians subsequently challenged with live Bd. Because Bd metabolites are non-infectious and applied topically, this treatment has potential to be administered to waterbodies to vaccinate and protect amphibians. We developed an agent-based model that indicated imperfect vaccination could reduce or amplify Bd infections at the population level, depending on degree of enhanced resistance or tolerance. Utilizing a Before-After-Control-Impact design with ten years of data, we conducted an ecosystem-level trial where we applied low levels of Bd metabolites or a sham control treatment to ponds in California and subsequently quantified Bd prevalence and infection intensity in metamorphosing Pacific chorus frogs (Pseudacris regilla). Unexpectedly, infection intensity was significantly greater in treated ponds relative to control ponds following metabolite addition. Additional model simulations indicated that this could occur via two mechanisms: (1) if treatment greatly increased tolerance alone or in combination with smaller increases in resistance, or (2) if a deleterious environmental interaction caused the treatment to increase susceptibility, rather than promote resistance. Future research is needed to determine whether tolerance or environmental factors drove heightened Bd infection intensities in this field trial to identify contexts in which this treatment can be used as a conservation tool.